Research-based practices inform Head Start’s work with ELLs.
by Phillip C. Gonzales

In the United States today, one in five children speaks a language other than English at home. The figure is even higher in Head Start, where about 27 percent of the children enrolled are considered English language learners. All these children have the opportunity to be bilingual and use two languages— and that is an opportunity too valuable to pass up.

Being Bilingual Is an Asset

What are the advantages to being bilingual? A review of the research (August & Hakuta 1997) indicates that

• bilingual children often have higher levels of cognitive achievement than monolingaual children (Hakuta & Garcia, 1989);
• bilingual individuals handle tasks involving multiple variables more easily than those who speak only one language;
• bilingual individuals tolerate ambiguity better and are more cognitively flexible;
• bilingual individuals can effectively communicate with more people.

Young children can and do acquire more than one language, either simultaneously or sequentially, depending on when the second language is introduced (Tabors 1997). Some children become bilingual as the two languages are spoken in the home setting over the same period of time. For example, one parent speaks Creole to the child, the other English, and the child learns both languages simultaneously. For most children, though, the process of language acquisition occurs sequentially. That is, the home language is learned first and the second language, such as English, is learned later, often when the child enters a preschool or school setting.

Bilingualism is supported by the Head Start Program Performance Standards. They require that programs support home language development in order to promote communication between children and their families and to build children’s cultural and linguistic identity. They also suggest the importance of acquiring English for 4- and 5-year olds in Head Start whose home language is other than English. In fact, the Head Start Child Outcomes Framework mandates that non-English speaking children show progress in listening to, understanding, and speaking English.

The sequential process of learning a second language, such as English in Head Start, should be additive, meaning that the new language should expand the child’s overall linguistic capabilities. While the new language is being learned, the home language should be maintained—the ultimate goal is bilingualism. In fact, research indicates that having a strong foundation in the home language is an advantage while a child is learning a second language. A recent review of research also concludes that English language learners may be more successful in learning to read when they are instructed in both their home language and English (Slavin & Cheung 2003).

This article explores how young children acquire their first or home language and how they add a second—typically English—in an early childhood setting. These children are referred to as English language learners.

Acquiring the First Language

Children are born without knowing how to speak or even understand the language spoken by their parents and caregivers. But they are born with the ability to learn. Over time and with exposure, they begin to understand what others say and to produce language themselves. Language development is a complex process, involving the learning of a system of rules about grammar, meaning, and usage. But how does this learning occur?

All over the world, in all linguistic communities, children acquire their home language in basically the same way. They learn language in a fairly unconscious way as they listen and speak to communicate meaning. As they are exposed to recurrent or repeated situations such as mealtime, bathing, play, and dressing, the language they hear becomes associated with these contexts and activities. Over time, that language becomes more and more understandable. Oral language emerges as young children interact with others to socialize, to convey needs and have them met, to share ideas and learn about the ideas of others, and to entertain or be entertained through play (Wells 1986).

The process of language development begins with a baby’s cooing and babbling. At first, they produce a wide variety of sounds, eventually keeping only those sounds that are heard in the language spoken by their parents or other caregivers. Around 5-8 months, babies in an English-speaking environment begin producing syllable-like sequences like mamama or baba. These early sounds are often spoken during social interaction and signal the infant’s interest in what is going on around her.

Between 12-18 months, most babies produce their first word or words. Their early vocabulary includes names of important people (dada), objects (milk), functional words (down), and social words (hi) (Tabors 1997). Adults often attribute meaning and respond appropriately to the baby’s early words. For instance, an 18 month-old may utter, “ Wawa,” and the adult says, “Oh, you want some water,” and then hands the child a cup of water. The child’s oneword utterance (holophrastic) conveys extended meaning with limited language.

Throughout this period, children are also learning about the social use of language. During face-to-face interactions with their caregivers, babies are experiencing turn-taking well before they can hold a conversation (Bruner 1983; Weitzman & Greenberg 2002). They also learn about how the members of their language community use greetings and other social pleasantries.

By the second year, children produce two- and three-word phrases or utterances, developing the ability to express more complex relationships with their words. While this language is not adult-like in completeness or in grammatical accuracy, it effectively communicates. A toddler says, “Daddy, bye bye,” intending to communicate ‘good bye’ or perhaps ‘I want to go with you’ or maybe ‘Daddy is not here.’ This telegraphic speech is understood in the context of the situation or activity in which both the child and the adult are engaged. Adults respond as though the language were accurate, complete, and meaningful. They honor the child’s effort to communicate, which further reinforces the young child’s confidence and motivation to use language.

Between 3-4 years, sentences become longer and more complex. Their use of grammar becomes more sophisticated and accurate. In English, children begin to acquire past tenses and the passive voice. They talk about events that happened away from home and think ahead to the future such as their upcoming birthday party or a special outing. Vocabulary also grows in leaps and bounds; preschoolers may acquire 6-10 new words a day while also expanding their understanding of the words they already know (Tabors 1997).

By the time English-speaking children are 5 years old, most of the basic skills of oral language have been mastered. They can construct long and detailed sentences, produce most sounds correctly, and engage in extended conversations. However, more advanced uses of language as well as vocabulary continue to be acquired during the school years and beyond.

The process of first language acquisition is basically the same in all languages. Family members and other caregivers can help young children acquire home language proficiency (no matter what language is being learned) by:

• Talking frequently with children, especially about activities and objects at hand;
• Listening to the child’s communicative intent and not focusing on the correctness of the child’s language;
• Encouraging children to talk; and
• Satisfying a child’s curiosity about their world and involving them in learning about it.

Second Language Acquisition

These preceding four guidelines also inform our practice when we encourage the development of a second language, either in a simultaneous or sequential fashion. Young children can acquire a second language if exposed to it in meaningful experiences. They need to hear it spoken in ways that help them make sense of their world. They become increasingly fluent in the second language as they have opportunities to speak it with a variety of individuals on many different topics and for a range of reasons (California Department of Education 1998; Quinones-Eatman 2001).

Before age 3, young children exposed to two languages will appear to learn both as one. They may often mix the two languages as they speak. At about 3 years of age, children begin to separate the two languages. They often associate each language with its primary speakers, such as Spanish with their parents and English with a Head Start teacher. Through this learning and sorting process, bilingualism gradually emerges.

Stages of Sequential Acquisition of a Second Language

Tabors and Snow (1994) have identified four stages of sequential acquisition of a new language. The stages describe the learning process for children after the age of 3, whose first language is partly established and who are now in a setting where the second language, probably English, is predominantly in use. An overview of each stage is presented below along with suggestions about how teachers can provide support.

Stage 1: Home Language Use. Monolingual children in a new language environment will continue to speak their home language. They often appear oblivious to the new language, perhaps because much of the language spoken by adults and other children is inaccessible or incomprehensible to them. For example, a Russian- or Arabic-speaking child who does not know English, will speak Russian or Arabic in the new setting even though no one else there speaks their home language. This first stage continues even as children begin to discover that a new and different language is being spoken.

Tips for Teachers: Stage 1—Home Language Use

• Strive to include all children in every activity.
• Use concrete props and manipulatives along with activities that require movement.
• Talk continuously about what children are seeing, doing, sensing, or expecting.
• Encourage children to repeat or echo what they hear.
• Do not insist that children generate English spontaneously or individually.
• Learn a few phrases in the child's home language that can be used to greet the child, ensure involvement in activities, check on comprehension, provide directives, check on comfort, and complement effort.

Stage 2: Nonverbal Period. This stage begins when children start to realize that their primary language is not being understood. They will become quiet, often using nonverbal means to communicate their interests and needs. They will watch and listen intently as the new language is used in various activities, seemingly collecting and storing information about the new language, its sounds, and vocabulary. At times, children will appear to comprehend and behave accordingly, even if they do not completely understand. For example, an English language learner—

• who wants to join in block play might get a truck and push it in the direction of a few children in the block area, watching them intently but not speaking, little by little inching closer until the others notice him.

In some instances, children will signal the end of this stage by beginning to make sounds that are like those of the second language—in this case, English—but which may not be recognizable as real English words. An English language learner in Stage 2—

• who is at the art table might say, “No” (followed by non- English sounds) when another child reaches for his play dough. The English language learner is trying to communicate, “ That’s mine. Don’t touch it.”

Tips for Teachers: Stage 2—Nonverbal Period

• Use language tied to an experience to help children understand what is being said.
• Explain procedures and use concrete referents in activities and lessons.
• Allow children to rehearse before saying anything in public.
• Provide a starter language to help children formulate a message.
• Elaborate on a child's limited communication.
• Use props or appropriate actions that will help promote comprehension
• Use linguistic structures such as: "Look at this… Hold this… Where did it go/ where is it?… Give me the…. Watch me do…. This is a…. Notice that…. Tell me…. Show me…"
• Remember that the length of time a child is in the nonverbal period varies, depending on many factors including the personality of the child and characteristics of the particular setting.

Stage 3: Telegraphic and Formulaic Speech. During this time, children intentionally use individual vocabulary words or put them together in a short sequence or in whole sentences to communicate. A child may say, “Teacher book” when asking the teacher to read a story or use the formulaic phrase “ lookit” as she draws a teacher’s attention to some item. While the language is often incomplete or grammatically awkward, it nonetheless communicates in that specific context. This early attempt at English should be encouraged by not insisting that it be flawless or accurate. Some mixing of English and the home language may occur, especially when the child lacks the confidence or ability to communicate consistently in one language only. For example, a child at this stage,

• who is thirsty might say, “Mas juice.” The child may not know exactly what the word “juice” means but the end result will be that she will be given something to drink.

Tips for Teachers: Stage 3—Telegraphic and Formulaic Speech

• Engage children in conversations constantly. If they don't understand, say it another way.
• Listen to a child's communicative intent, rather than judging whether they are speaking correctly or not.
• Simplify English when speaking to children by using simpler sentences.
• Accept all attempts at communication even if it involves a mixing of English and the child's home language. The two will separate with time.
• Avoid overcorrecting a child's speech.
• Expand a child's language by continuing with the next logical step in the conversation.
• Encourage new English speakers to play and work with more English proficient children.
• Vary situations where either the home language or English might be heard and spoken.
• Introduce new conversation topics and model different purposes for language use.
• Listen intently to a child without interrupting, adding examples to the child's message, sharing personal anecdotes, and clarifying the message intent.

Stage 4: Productive Language. The child begins to speak English relatively well. New phrases and sentences are produced as the child’s vocabulary in the second language continues to expand. Sentences may be composed somewhat creatively and be rather awkward at times. Over-generalizations and under-generalizations of some word meanings might occur. While mistakes are common, they are a normal part of the developmental process and need not be corrected. They demonstrate that the child is experimenting with the new language in a manner that will promote greater proficiency over time.

Tips for Teachers: Stage 4—Productive Language

• Allow children to talk in both their home and program languages.
• Encourage children to tell stories, share information, make requests, entertain, and persuade.
• Involve children in active experiences.
• Clarify communication when a child under-generalizes a definition such as saying, “The doggie” (meaning only one specific dog) or over-generalizing, saying, “The doggies” (meaning any four-legged animals). Teachers can refer to the type of dog or the name of the dog to differentiate it from the category of dogs. Or, they can label the different four-legged animals.

These stages of second language acquisition represent a general pattern of second language learning for children, after the age of 3, in English-speaking settings. But the developmental path is not linear; children learning a second language continue to demonstrate previous levels of ability while adding new skills.

Jones and Yandian (2002) point out that children who are acquiring a second language sequentially have already learned a great deal in their first language. They will transfer knowledge and concepts to their second language. They do not have to relearn them in a second language. They only need to learn how to communicate what they already know. For example, once children learn the concept of number in their home language, they do not need to relearn the concept in their second language. They just need to understand that “uno” means “ one” in English. Similarly, important literacy concepts--like the principle that spaces separate words in KiSwahili or that Spanish print is read from left to right-- that are learned in the home language of KiSwahili or Spanish, can transfer easily to English.

Individual Influences

Not all children acquire a second language at the same rate. Tabors (1997) identifies four major factors that influence a child’s progress in developing second language skills:

MOTIVATION
A desire to communicate with speakers of the second language may be the best predictor of success in learning that language. When children deliberately seek out adults or peers who speak the new language, they are showing their desire to learn. If parents believe that learning English is important, their children are more likely to be motivated.

EXPOSURE
How much time a child spends in contact with the new language and with speakers of that new language influences language acquisition. The more children are engaged in meaningful activities involving the new language, the greater their competence in the second language.

AGE
Younger children, such as 2–4 year olds, may move more slowly through the stages of second language acquisition than older preschoolers and school-aged children. As children get older, they have a better understanding of how language works and mobilize their learning skills faster to take on the challenge of learning a new language.

PERSONALITY
Children who are more outgoing and risk-takers have an easier time learning a second language than shy and reserved children. Children are more likely to acquire English easily if they can laugh at their own mistakes and easily meet and mix with other children.

Conclusion

We have learned much about language acquisition during the past 50 years. This research-based knowledge informs our current practices in guiding the development of both a first and a second language. Young children will acquire English as a second language when the new language is expected, nurtured, and used purposefully. When people communicate in a variety of ways about day-to-day topics, the children will be motivated to communicate back.

With the support of the Head Start Program Performance Standards and many other efforts from the Head Start Bureau, Head Start and Early Head Start programs are uniquely positioned to encourage and support bilingualism among the children and families, as well as among the staff who provide services. Teaching teams and administrators in Head Start programs need to be willing to expend the effort to encourage English language production and be patient enough for it to develop. The Head Start experience provides a positive environment for English language learners to become bilingual.

REFERENCES

August, D. & K. Hakuta, eds. 1997. Improving schooling for language-minority children—A Research agenda. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Bruner, J. 1983. Child’s talk. Learning to use language. New York: Norton.

California Department of Education. 1998. Fostering the development of a first and a second language—Fostering the development of a first and a second language in early childhood. Sacramento, CA: Author.

Quiñones-Eatman, J. 2001. Preschool second language acquisition — What we know and how we can effectively communicate with young second language learners. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Early Childhood Research Institute on Culture and Linguistic Appropriate Services.

Slavin, R. & A. Cheung. 2003. Effective reading programs for English language learners. A best evidence synthesis. Report No. 66 published by the Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed At Risk (CRESPAR). Washington, DC: Department of Education. Available at www.csos.jhu.edu/crespar/techReports/Report66.pdf

Tabors, P. 1997. One child, two languages. A guide for preschool educators of children learning English as a second language. Baltimore, MD: Paul. H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Weitzman, E. & J. Greenberg, J. 2002. Learning language and loving it. A guide to promoting children’s social, language, and literacy development in early childhood settings. Second edition. Toronto: The Hanen Centre.

Wells, G. 1986. The meaning makers. Children learning language and using language to learn. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational Books.

Yandian, S. & J. Jones. 2002. Supporting the home language and promoting English acquisition within Migrant and Seasonal Head Start. Washington, DC: Migrant and Seasonal Head Start Quality Improvement Center.