Assessment of English Language Learners: Challenges and Strategies

How are our children doing? Head Start and Early Head Start programs seek answers to this question in multiple ways. Programs are required to:

• Perform an initial screning of each child to identify evidence of developmental, sensory, or behavioral concerns and to determine if the child should receive a more formal evaluation to identify disabilities. (Head Start Program Performance Standards 1304.20(b)(1))
  
  
• Conduct ongoing assessments of each child to identify their strengths and needs, to help individualize learning experiences and other services, and to support staff in communicating and working with parents and families. (Head Start Program Performance Standards 1304.21(c)(2)
  
  
• Incorporate data on child outcomes for groups of children over time into annual program self-assessment and continuous program improvement. (ACYF-IM-HS-00-18)
  
  
• Use the National Reporting System (NRS) to assess all 4- and 5-year olds on a limited set of language, literacy, and numeracy outcomes that have been legislatively mandated. (ACYF-IM-HS-03-07)

Many Head Start programs have English language learners who must be included in the multiple forms of assessment. How can this be done in a way that is sensitive and respectful to the children’s culture and language? How can children’s ongoing progress be assessed if they speak a language other than English? What kinds of tools or techniques provide valid information about a child’s language development? How can assessment elicit the most competent performance from a young child that indicates what they can do or know rather then what they can not do or do not know?

The author of this article, Vera Gutiérrez-Clellen, has conducted research on assessment techniques with English language learners in preschool and elementary schools. She describes some of the observational and interview approaches that program staff can use to measure the language usage and ability of children whose home language is not English. She also addresses some of the dangers in drawing conclusions about children’s progress when assessments are only conducted in the new language, English.

The demographics of the Head Start population indicate that more and more children enter the program speaking a language other than English. How are teaching teams in classrooms and home visitors going to evaluate progress made by these children in the general Domains of learning and development that are identified in the Head Start Child Outcomes Framework— specifically, how can staff assess the children’s language development, including their progress in listening and understanding, speaking and communicating in English?

The answer is: Whenever possible, a child’s progress should be based on the child’s performance in both the first and second languages. Known as a dual language, or bilingual, approach, this assessment strategy is recommended rather than a single language, or monolingual, approach. Why?

The Value of a Dual Language Assessment

A dual language approach will provide a more accurate picture of a child’s progress than assessments focused only on performance in the child’s new language, English. One reason is that while a child is learning English, she may show greater initial progress in the home language and limited progress in her second language. Another reason is that research shows that when the child’s achievements are examined in the home language, teachers can also make fairly accurate predictions about the child’s potential for learning in the second language (Gutiérrez-Clellen 1999). For example, a preschooler who shows the potential for learning concepts (such as number and color) in the home language has the potential for transferring those skills to the second language. In contrast, children who show limited performance in the home language may need further evaluation from the Head Start support staff and other professionals in the community.

Furthermore, there are significant individual differences in the language proficiencies of second language learners. Many children are first exposed to the second language, English, when they enter Head Start. Other children may have some prior exposure to the language but may not have been exposed to school-like language activities at home. For example, children may be able to converse in English but lack the vocabulary or the ability to manipulate sounds and letters in English which are considered early literacy activities.

Even children who appear fluent in the two languages may show differences depending on the language tasks, contexts, and assessment (Valdés & Figueroa 1994). For example, a child may be proficient in one language for one task (e.g., counting, letter naming) but not for another (e.g., listening comprehension). Another child may be able to hold a simple conversation in English but not be able to answer questions about a story or a sequence of pictures (Gutiérrez-Clellen 2002). Because of this variability and the fact that knowledge is mediated by language, it is almost impossible to obtain an accurate measure of progress without examining development in the two languages.

Assessing only in English will underestimate the child’s abilities and might raise questions about the efficacy of the program in facilitating children’s learning. Limited performance or progress may be confused with a developmental or language delay, leading to the inappropriate referral and/or diagnosis of these children. Also, this approach has the potential of generating lower expectations for other English language learners who are not referred, but may have true and unmet needs.

Gathering Information About Dual Language Usage and Ability

There are multiple ways for Head Start staff to learn about children’s language development in both the home language and the new language, English. Parents, of course, can provide invaluable information about the family’s home language and the child’s early exposure to English. Teaching teams and home visitors can assess the child’s ongoing progress in speaking, listening to, and understanding English as they interact with children in the context of everyday activities. By working together, parents and Head Start staff can gain insight about the child’s progress and find ways to promote development in both languages as recommended by the Head Start Program Performance Standards.

From Parents. If the parents do not speak English, a family specialist or other staff person who is bilingual can gather information about the child’s language usage and ability during the enrollment process. This information can be shared with the teaching team and help them plan ways to support the child’s language development. Research indicates that the amount of input, frequency of use, and the parents’ estimates of language ability highly relate to the level of proficiency in the language (Gutiérrez-Clellen & Kreiter 2003). Sample questions appear in the Parent Form (see page 50). The questions ask the parents how well and how often the child speaks and uses the first and the second (English) language. (See Tabors and Lopez, page 14, for additional questions to ask parents).

Staff Observations of the Child. Based on staff observations of the child in the Head Start setting, the teacher or home visitor can complete a form indicating how much and how well the child speaks the languages. Research shows that teachers are highly reliable in estimating a child’s level of proficiency and English usage based on their observations of the child (Gutiérrez-Clellen & Kreiter 2003). Observations and insights from other staff who have contact with the child, such as bus drivers and family or health specialists, also can be added to the form. A sample Teacher’s Form is included (see page 51). This form can provide baseline data when the child enters Head Start. It could be used several times during the year to note the child’s progress in first and second language usage and proficiency.

In addition to questions addressed by parents and teachers, proficiency in the languages can be assessed directly by asking children to provide spontaneous narrative samples, also known as story retellings.

Narrative Samples and Story Retellings. Across cultures and languages, narratives are used to share past information within families and communities. Children are exposed to narratives at a very early age; their retellings can provide important information about their ability to produce and comprehend a language(s).

Classroom staff or home visitors in Head Start programs can elicit narratives from the child by using a sequence of 10-12 pictures (such as are used in the Renfrew Bus Story, a standardized language assessment (Cowley & Glasgow 1997)). Adults can model a statement about each picture (e.g., “This is John and his frog”; “One day they went to the park”) and then ask the child to retell the story. A child who is not proficient in the language will not be able to retell the different parts of the story using appropriate sentences, even with the visual support of the pictures. As the child retells the story in whatever language he speaks, the teacher or home visitor (or other adult) can count the number of parts the child is able to include about the story. Then, the staff can ask the child questions about the pictures to assess comprehension (e.g., “What did the frog do?”). This approach can be used to compare the child’s proficiency in English and in the home language when staff or volunteers speak the child’s first language.

Research indicates that narratives also provide information about a child’s progress with pre-literacy skills. For example, children’s language skills are important predictors of their ability to blend or delete sounds in words, skills that are associated with learning to read (Cooper, Roth, Speece, & Schatschneider 2002).

Summary

The best picture of children’s linguistic competence is based on their performance in both their home language and the new language, English. This dual language approach will provide the most fair and accurate assessment of children’s ability to understand and use language. Information about the child’s progress in both languages can be gathered from a variety of sources, including parent interviews, staff observations, and the child’s narrative retellings. Head Start programs can also use information from the National Reporting System (NRS) to measure the progress of Spanish-speaking children in both their home language and their new language, English.

REFERENCES

Cooper, D.H., F.P. Roth, D.L. Speece, & C. Schatschneider. 2002. The contribution of oral language skills to the development of phonological awareness. Applied Psycholinguistics 23: 399-416.

Cowley, J. & Glasgow, C. 1997. The Renfrew bus story. Language screening by narrative recall. Wilmington, DE: Centreville School.

Gutiérrez-Clellen, V.F. & J. Kreiter. 2003. Understanding child bilingual acquisition using parent and teacher reports. Applied Psycholinguistics 24: 267-288.

Gutiérrez-Clellen, V.F. 2002. Narratives in two languages. Assessing performance of bilingual children. Linguistics and Education 13: 175-197.

Gutiérrez-Clellen, V.F. 1999. Language choice in intervention with bilingual children. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology 8: 291-302.

Tabors, P. 1997. One child, two languages. A guide for preschool educators of children learning English as a second language. Baltimore, MD: Paul. H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Valdés, G. & R.A.Figueroa. 1994. Bilingualism and testing: A special case of bias. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Vera F. Gutiérrez-Clellen is Director of the Bilingual Child Language Research Laboratory and Professor at San Diego State University. T: 619-594-6645; E: vclellen@mail.sdsu.edu

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GATHERING INFORMATION ABOUT ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

PARENT FORM

Name of Child
Age of the Child
Head Start staff/other person who is speaking with the parent(s)

1. I will ask you to tell me your opinion about how well your child speaks each language. We will start with the language spoken at home, which is ______________ (fill in the blank). Then, I will ask you for your opinion about the child’s English. [The numbers are for the interviewer’s use only; each category will be read to the interviewee.]

(0) My child cannot speak (e.g., Spanish, Tagalog, etc.), has a few words or phrases, but cannot produce sentences (e.g., “I want cookies”). My child only understands a few words.

(1) My child cannot speak ____________, has a few words or phrases, but understands the general idea of what is being said.

(2) My child has limited proficiency in __________ with grammatical errors, has limited vocabulary, but understands the general idea of what is being said.

(3) My child has good proficiency in _________ with some grammatical errors, has some social and school vocabulary, and understands most of what is said.

(4) My child has native-like proficiency in ________ with few grammatical errors, has good vocabulary, and understands most of what is said.

2. Now, I will ask you for your opinion about your child’s English. [The ratings are for the interviewer’s use only; each category will be read to the interviewee.]

(0) My child cannot speak English, has a few words or phrases, but cannot produce sentences (e.g., “I want cookies”). My child only understands a few words.

(1) My child cannot speak English, has a few words or phrases, but understands the general idea of what is being said.

(2) My child has limited proficiency in English with grammatical errors, has limited vocabulary, but understands the general idea of what is being said.

(3) My child has good proficiency in English with some grammatical errors, has some social and school vocabulary, and understands most of what is said.

(4) My child has native-like proficiency in English with few grammatical errors, has good vocabulary, and understands most of what is said.

3. How much does your child use each language? Let’s start with the language spoken at home.
   
   
1. Never speaks (e.g., Spanish, Tagalog, etc.), never hears it.
2. Never speaks __________, hears it very little.
3. Speaks __________ a little, hears it sometimes.
4. Speaks __________ sometimes, hears it most of the time.
5. Speaks __________ all of the time, hears it all of the time.

4. How much does your child use English?
   
   
1. Never speaks English, never hears it.
2. Never speaks English, hears it very little.
3. Speaks English a little, hears it sometimes.
4. Speaks English sometimes, hears it most of the time. (40 Speaks English all of the time, hears it all of the time.

(Adapted from Gutiérrez-Clellen & Kreiter, 2003, pp. 286-288; see Tabors and Lopez, page 14, for additional questions)

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TEACHER FORM

Name of Child
Age of the Child
Teacher


1. Use refers to how much the child uses the home language and English. Circle the appropriate rank for each language.
   
   
1. Never uses the indicated language. Never hears it.
2. Never uses the indicated language. Hears it very little.
3. Uses the indicated language a little. Hears it sometimes.
4. Uses the indicated language sometimes. Hears it most of the time.
5. Uses the indicated language all of the time. Hears it all of the time.
   
2. Proficiency refers to how well the child speaks each language. Circle the appropriate rank for each language.
   
   
0. Cannot speak the indicated language, has a few words or phrases, cannot produce sentences, and only understands a few words.
   
1. Cannot speak the indicated language, has a few words or phrases, but understands the general idea of what is being said.
   
2. Limited proficiency with grammatical errors, has limited vocabulary, but understands the general idea of what is being said.
   
3. Good proficiency with some grammatical errors, has some social and academic vocabulary, and understands most of what is said.
   
4. Native-like proficiency with few grammatical errors, has good vocabulary, and understands most of what is said.
   

Questions	Home Language						English
1. Speaks with you in class.	Don’t Know	0	1	2	3	4	Don’t Know	0	1	2	3	4
2. Speaks with aides or other teachers.	Don’t Know	0	1	2	3	4	Don’t Know	0	1	2	3	4
3. Speaks with classmates.	Don’t Know	0	1	2	3	4	Don’t Know	0	1	2	3	4

Questions	Home Language						English
1. Speaks with you in class.	Don’t Know	0	1	2	3	4	Don’t Know	0	1	2	3	4
2. Speaks with aides or other teachers.	Don’t Know	0	1	2	3	4	Don’t Know	0	1	2	3	4
3. Speaks with classmates.	Don’t Know	0	1	2	3	4	Don’t Know	0	1	2	3	4

3. On the continuum, circle the % of time that the child is exposed to each language in Head Start (the total time for the two languages should equal 100%):
   
   
English: 0% 20% 40% 50% 60% 80% 100%

Home Language: 0% 20% 40% 50% 60% 80% 100%